There's an article in this week's HBS Working Knowledge called "Dare I Say Something?" The article is a Q & A session about speaking up at work, based on research by Amy Edmondson and James Detert.  "Speaking up," in this case, means speaking to someone who is above you in the organizational hierarchy.

It's natural and human to be careful, and perhaps circumspect, when you're talking to people with power over you. These researchers go beyond that obvious insight to analyze what organizational conditions encourage folks to speak up.  Here are a couple of take-aways.

"… two beliefs are essential preconditions for the free expression of upward voice: first, the belief that one is not putting oneself at significant risk of personal harm (e.g., embarrassment, loss of material resources) and second, the belief that one is not wasting one's time in speaking up."

"At the same time, we've been in many organizations that have pockets—groups, departments, work units—that are palpably open and actively engaged in discussion, debate, experimentation, or improvement."

Wally's Comment:  That last quote is significant and mirrors some of my research.  There are always great bosses out there, scattered throughout the organization, who create teams where candid and productive communication happens. 

Top performing organizations have more of them than their less-effective peers.  Great organizations work to make sure that they have effective leadership at every level.